Effects of Popular and Classical Background Music on the Math Test Scores of Undergraduate Students

With the advent of electronically reproduced music, background music has become increasingly prevalent in our society. The occurrence of such music is so common that an individual may not be aware of music in their immediate environment. Background music can be defined as any music played while the listener's attention is focused primarily on a task or activity other than listening to the music (Radocy & Boyle, 1988). The function of background music varies with the individual listener and with the nature of the task or activity in which the listener is involved. Such a task or activity could be studying or other academic preparation. Students of all ages have often claimed that they can study and learn more effectively while listening to music. Indeed, some researchers have explored the possible transfer of cognitive abilities to other curricular areas by theorizing that exposure to music, through participation and formal instruction, can facilitate nonmusical learning (Madsen, 1987; Radocy & Boyle, 1988; Wolfe, 1983). Yet a solid research base for these claims seems to be lacking. While music appears to enhance some individuals' learning, it may be distracting to others.

The possible effects of exposure to music and music instruction on nonmusical learning have received some previous attention from the music education research community. Two reviews of literature (Hanshumaker, 1980; Wolff, 1977) discussed the extramusical effects of music education . The results of these reviews demonstrated mixed results. While some research indicated there may be some measurable effects of music instruction on cognitive skill, due to some inadequacies in the experimental designs such positive conclusions should be viewed with caution. Other researchers have utilized music as a reinforcer or mnemonic device (Madsen & Forsythe, 1973; Traver-Holder, 1993). Also, studies have attempted to draw a cause and effect relationship between music study and academic achievement (Friedman, 1959). Greenberg and Fisher (1971) discovered that background music had a statistically significant effect on psychological test scores. However, the direct effects of exposure to musical sounds during study or academic testing have received comparatively little attention.

Henderson, Crews, and Barlow (1945) found that popular music distracted subjects on a paragraph comprehension test, while it had no effect on vocabulary test scores. In a similar study, LaBach (1960) found background music had no effect on reading comprehension scores. He also discovered that the subjects' preference for listening to music while studying had no significant effect when used as a covariate. Etaugh and Michaels (1975) found an interaction between gender and frequency of studying to music that affected reading comprehension scores. However, Kelly (1993) did not find this interaction in a later study.

Studies that have examined the exposure to musical sounds on math skills have had similar results. Wolf and Weiner (1972) reported a statistically significant difference between music and silent conditions on arithmetic test scores. However, they attributed this difference to habituation as most of the test subjects reported that they listened to "hard rock" music when they studied. Wolfe (1983) found no difference in math test scores with four levels of music loudness, but did find that the subjects' reported that the "louder" music interfered with their concentration. In her dissertation, Cox (1981) reported that classical music used during relaxation therapy had no statistically significant effect on algebra scores. Moller (1980) found no significant difference in math test scores among groups exposed to three conditions: no sound, white noise background, and background music (John Cage's Fontana Mix).

Researchers have reported that the results of this body of literature reveal mixed results (Etaugh & Michaels, 1975; Madsen, 1987). However, finding optimum academic study and testing conditions for a variety of students is of interest to educators in all fields. Also, the effects of environmental conditions on learning and performance may reveal keys to the inner workings of the human thought process.

In his dissertation, Hedden (1971) proposed five music reaction profiles or music listening styles. These five styles are: associative, cognitive, physical, involvement, and enjoyment. Hedden hypothesized that people listen to music in a combination of five styles where all styles are present ar some level, but one style is predominant. How a person listens to music may affect the possible transfer of cognitive abilities to other curricular areas. It is the purpose of this study to investigate the effects of popular and classical music listening styles on undergraduate students' math test scores. Specifically, this study will seek to determine if any of the five musical styles, as defined by Hedden (1971), will act as a covariate, along with the presence of popular or classical background music, in affecting undergraduates' math test scores.

http://music.arts.usf.edu/rpme/effects.htm